Private landlords in Scotland are required to meet the obligations set in law by the Housing (Scotland) Act of 2006, chapter 4 of the act sets out the legal and contractual requirements with respect to the ‘Repairing Standard’. The Repairing Standard stipulates the minimum level of repair a property must achieve to be used as private rented accommodation in Scotland.
The Repairing Standard is a basic level of repair that all privately rented properties in Scotland must meet.
From 1 March 2024 private landlords are required to be compliant with new guidance with respect to the standard. The latest guidance brings in new measures for safe kitchens, heating systems, doors, electrical safety (residual current devices), and access and consent to common areas.
The new guidance sets very clear expectations with respect to the supply of drinking water and specifically the requirements for landlords to ensure drinking water is not contaminated with lead. Lead is the main water quality issue in Scotland and is a particular problem in houses built before 1970 when lead pipes, tanks, and fittings were commonly used.
Lead is a serious threat to public health, long term exposure to relatively low levels of lead is known to be associated with many health conditions such as high blood pressure (hypertension), kidney (renal) disease, digestive disease, and cognitive decline. Lead can cross the placental barrier and harm the unborn foetus and is known to cause developmental delay and learning difficulties in children. One study followed 1,300 children from birth and found that IQ decreased by almost 7 points as blood lead levels increased.
The World Health Organisation (WHO) sets no safe limit on the concentration of lead in drinking water.
In the UK, the drinking water standards require the level of lead to be less than 10 micrograms per litre (µg/l) which is equivalent to 10 parts per billion. The standard will be tightened in 2036 when water will need to contain less than 5 µg/l. These standards provide a useful benchmark for water quality standards but it’s important to note that lead is hazardous to health at levels below these limits and test results of less than the limit (sometimes described as the prescribed concentration or value, PCV) should not be interpreted as safe.
The requirements for the installation of water supplies are detailed in Annex D1 of the Repairing Standard guidance. Landlords must be satisfied that any house they rent to tenants has “an adequate piped supply of wholesome drinking water within the house”. It also goes on to specify that “they must also ensure that any pipes supplying water for human consumption are in good condition and safe to use”. The term ‘wholesome’ is commonly used in drinking water standards but isn’t specific, fortunately the repairing standard goes on to explicitly state the things that a landlord must consider:
The biggest problem to Scottish water supplies is lead contamination, we will cover this in detail in later sections.
Types of supply: Most people in Scotland will get their water from a public water supply (Scottish Water), houses outside of towns are sometimes supplied by private water supplies such as boreholes, where this is the case a laboratory water test must be conducted before the property is let, annual testing is the responsibility of the local authority (although they have the right to pass the cost of the testing on to the landlord).
Unwholesome water: Water must be free of microorganisms such as E.coli, the standards lay down specifications with respect to colour and odour, both of which can indicate serious problems. A laboratory test is the only conclusive way to determine whether a water supply is wholesome. The guidance stipulates that a laboratory test must be conducted if:
Legionella: The guidance states “private landlords have a duty to carry out a risk assessment of both hot and cold-water systems for legionnaire’s disease to minimise the risk of tenants being exposed to legionella.”. The guidance goes on to specify that “in most residential settings, a simple assessment may show that the risks are low, and no further action may be necessary”. Risks are lower when daily water usage is inevitable, cold water is directly fed from a ‘wholesome’ mains supply and hot water is fed from instantaneous heaters (supplying water at >50°C).
Adequate supply: The water supply must be available, wholesome water should be available from at least one tap inside the house, this will normally be the kitchen tap. The supply must also be adequate meaning the tenant should have access to a reasonable quantity of water at a rate of seven litres per minute. The supply must also be continuous, this can be a particular problem for private water supplies that are prone to water sources drying up in summer months.
In general, the property owner is responsible for all pipes within their property and also for the pipe work from the external stopcock (normally located at the property boundary) to the house, this is called the supply pipe. For those on public water supplies, the water company (in Scotland this is Scottish water) is responsible for the mains pipes and the pipe that connects the water main in the street with the external stopcock, this is termed the communication pipe.
In older housing both the communication pipe and the supply pipe may be made of lead. When a property owner replaces internal lead pipes and supply pipes the water company is required to replace any lead communication pipes.
The main water quality issues in Scotland relate to the use of lead pipes. Since 1970 the dangers of them have been understood and recognised and the use of them has been prohibited. However, many older houses are still plumbed with dangerous lead pipes, it has been estimated that as many as 9 million houses across the UK may be affected by lead pipes.
Scottish water is generally ‘soft’ in nature, meaning that it contains little calcium and magnesium salts. Whilst the taste and feel of Scottish water may be the envy of the UK, the downside of soft water is that it’s harder to control the acidity (pH) and it can therefore be more corrosive to plumbing than hard water.
The Repairing Standard is very clear with respect to lead in rented housing, “lead pipes and lead lined storage tanks or fittings should not be present in the water supply of any privately rented property”, unless the landlord is unable to replace the pipes due to lack of consent from other owners, lead pipes and tanks must be removed to comply with the repairing standard.
The standard requires the landlord to:
The presence of lead of about 3 micrograms per litre indicates that some lead is present in the plumbing.
The Repair Standard guidance is clear that laboratory testing should be used where the landlord does not have certainty that lead pipes aren’t used. Fortunately, laboratory testing for lead in drinking water is simple, affordable and convenient. Independent water testing companies such as ‘The Water Professor’ offer a convenient solution for testing water supplies.
Lead tests start from just £50, whole-house testing options are a cost-effective way of testing multiple taps. More details of lead testing can be found on our lead testing page.
Tests are suitable for landlords and letting agencies seeking to be compliant with the Repair Standard and to tenants wanting to assure the water in their rented property is safe.
The obvious consequence of non-compliance with the lead pipe requirements of the repairing standard is to public health. Lead is an extremely toxic and harmful contaminant of our water, the science is now clear that it causes many long term health problems and causes developmental problems in children. Worst still, lead accumulates within the body and can cause long term health problems, even at very low concentrations.
The responsibility for legal enforcement of the Repairing Standard lies with the First-tier Tribunal for Scotland (Housing and Property Chamber), the FTT, and administration is carried out by staff of the Scottish Courts and Tribunals service. When a tenant believes that the Repairing Standard is not being met for a property they rent from a private landlord they can apply to the FTT for a determination, and where tenants feel that they are vulnerable, they can contact their local authority who have the power to apply the tribunal on their behalf.
The new guidance on the Repairing Standard requires landlords to have certainty that the water supply in the property they let does not contain harmful levels of lead. The Standard explicitly states that any lead pipes identified must be removed or replaced. Where landlords are not certain that the water is free of lead they should consider testing the supply.
The guidance provides useful help in the interpretation of the Standard and states that lead levels that are at or exceed 3 micrograms per litre are indicative of lead pipes and require further investigation. Accurate testing for lead must be conducted in a competent laboratory, fortunately independent testing is available and is accurate, fast, and convenient.
Fluoride is a naturally occurring substance that is found in both tap water and bottled water. Whilst fluoride has been added to toothpaste to prevent dental decay since the 1890s, the addition of fluoride to water supplies remains controversial. In this blog, we look at some of the factors for and against water fluoridation and explore how fluoride can be tested and removed.
Fluoridation is the practice of adding fluoride to public water supplies to prevent tooth decay. Fluoridation was first introduced in the United States in the 1940s and has since been adopted by many other countries around the world.
The idea of fluoridating water supplies to prevent tooth decay was first proposed in the early 20th century by a dentist named Frederick McKay. In the early 1900s, McKay noticed that many of his patients in Colorado Springs had brown stains on their teeth. After conducting research, McKay discovered that the brown stains were caused by high levels of fluoride in municipal water supplies. However, he also noticed that the people with stained teeth had fewer cavities than those with white teeth.
McKay concluded that fluoride could have a beneficial effect on dental health. He began to advocate for the addition of fluoride to water supplies to prevent tooth decay and later, in the 1940s, fluoridation became widespread in the US.
In the 1950s, the UK was also experiencing a dental health crisis. Many people suffered from tooth decay, and dental health services were struggling to cope with the demand. The government was under pressure to find a solution to this problem.
In 1955, a government-appointed committee recommended that fluoridation of drinking water should be considered as a means of preventing tooth decay. This was based on McKay’s earlier research in the United States and other countries that had shown that adding fluoride to drinking water could reduce the incidence of tooth decay.
Ever since fluoridation was initially proposed there has been considerable opposition to the idea from some quarters. Some people were concerned about the safety of fluoride, while others argued that it was a violation of individual choice to add a substance to drinking water without consent. Despite opposition, the UK government passed the Water Fluoridation Act in 1963. This act allowed local authorities to add fluoride to drinking water supplies, provided that they had consulted with local residents and that the level of fluoride added was within safe limits (1.5 parts per million).
The first water fluoridation scheme in the UK was introduced in Birmingham in 1964. The scheme was controversial, with many residents opposing it. However, it was also seen as a success, with a significant reduction in tooth decay rates among children in the city. Other local authorities in the UK later began to introduce their own fluoridation schemes. By the 1970s until today, around 10% of the UK population is receiving fluoridated water, with most of these schemes located in the Midlands and the North East. There are no plans to introduce new fluoridation schemes at present.
While proponents argue that fluoridation can help prevent tooth decay and improve dental health, opponents argue that it may have adverse health effects.
In the UK, the benefits of adding fluoride to drinking water are widely recognised, with numerous studies demonstrating that it is an effective way to prevent tooth decay and improve dental health. The National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) and the UK Department of Health and Social Care both recommend water fluoridation as an effective and cost-effective way to improve dental health.
"We believe that water fluoridation is the single most effective public health measure there is for reducing oral health inequalities and tooth decay rates, especially amongst children. We welcome these proposals and believe they represent an opportunity to take a big step forward in not only improving this generation’s oral health, but those for decades to come." – Dr Nigel Carter, Oral Health Foundation
The most common concern about fluoridation is that it may cause harm to human health. Some people in the UK remain concerned about the potential health risks of water fluoridation. Individuals and groups argue that fluoride may be linked to health problems such as cancer, thyroid disease, and neurodevelopmental disorders such as ADHD, although these claims are not supported by strong scientific evidence.
Others simply believe that water fluoridation violates their right to choose what they consume and that they should be able to opt-out of fluoridated water.
The World Health Organisation (WHO) has recommended that the optimal level of fluoride in drinking water should be between 0.5 and 1.5 parts per million (ppm), some studies have shown that levels up to 4 ppm are safe.
Whilst many people in the UK are supportive of fluoridation, there is a minority who believe that adding fluoride to drinking water can be dangerous to human health. Some of the alleged dangers of fluoride include damage to the brain, kidneys, thyroid, bones, and teeth. While there is some scientific evidence to suggest that excessive exposure to fluoride can lead to health problems, the majority of current research supports the safety and effectiveness of water fluoridation.
One of the main concerns about fluoride in drinking water is dental fluorosis, a condition that can cause discoloured or pitted teeth. Severe cases of dental fluorosis are extremely rare, and the levels of fluoride added to drinking water are generally well below the threshold that would cause this condition. Another concern is the potential for fluoride to accumulate in the body over time, leading to health problems.
There are also concerns that fluoride may have adverse effects on the brain and nervous system. Some studies have suggested that high levels of fluoride exposure may lead to lower IQ scores in children, but these studies have been criticized for methodological flaws and have not been replicated in other studies. The consensus among public health organizations and medical experts is that water fluoridation is safe and does not pose a significant risk to brain function or development.
In rare cases, exposure to high levels of fluoride can lead to skeletal fluorosis, a condition that affects the bones and joints. However, this condition is almost unheard of in areas where water fluoridation is used, as the levels of fluoride are carefully regulated to prevent overexposure.
The main benefit of water fluoridation is that it helps to prevent tooth decay. Fluoride works by strengthening tooth enamel and making teeth more resistant to acid erosion. This helps to prevent cavities and other dental problems, particularly in children and adolescents who are more vulnerable to tooth decay. Studies have shown that water fluoridation can reduce the incidence of tooth decay by up to 35%, and it is considered one of the most effective ways to improve dental health. By preventing tooth decay and reducing the need for dental treatments such as fillings and extractions, water fluoridation can help to reduce the burden on the NHS and save money in the long term.
Another benefit of water fluoridation is that it helps to reduce inequalities in dental health. Tooth decay is more common in areas of social deprivation, and water fluoridation can help to level the playing field by providing access to fluoride for all members of the community, regardless of their income or social status. This helps to ensure that everyone has an equal chance of maintaining good dental health. A 2022 publication by the Office for Health Improvements and Disparities (OHID) and the UK Health Security Agency (UKHSA) reported that children and young people in areas in England with higher fluoride concentrations were up to 63% less likely to be admitted to hospital for tooth extractions due to decay than those in areas with low fluoride concentrations.
Several studies have shown that the levels of fluoride used in water fluoridation are safe and do not cause harm to human health. In the UK, the levels of fluoride added to water supplies are carefully monitored and regulated to ensure that they remain within safe limits.
In addition to preventing tooth decay, fluoride has been shown to have other health benefits. Studies have suggested that fluoride may help to prevent osteoporosis, a condition that affects bone density and can lead to fractures and other health problems. Fluoride has also been shown to have antibacterial properties and may help to prevent other types of infections.
In the UK, the fluoridation of drinking water is regulated by the Water Industry Act 1991, which gives water companies the power to add fluoride to their water supplies. Before a decision to fluoridate the water supply can be made, a public consultation process must be undertaken. This involves informing the local community about the proposed fluoridation and giving them the opportunity to provide feedback and raise any concerns they may have. Until recently, local authorities have been responsible for proposing and consulting on new fluoridation schemes, variations, or terminations. The Health and Care Act 2022 transfers this power to Central Government.
The levels of fluoride added to the water are carefully monitored and regulated by the Drinking Water Inspectorate (DWI), which is responsible for ensuring that the water supply is safe and meets the necessary quality standards. The DWI sets strict limits on the levels of fluoride that can be added to drinking water, to ensure that they are safe and do not cause harm to human health. The current UK guideline level for fluoride in drinking water is 1.5 parts per million.
The water companies are required to regularly monitor the levels of fluoride in their water supplies and report the results to the DWI. If the levels of fluoride are found to be outside of the permitted range, the water company must take immediate action to correct the problem.
Fluoride occurs naturally in water from some parts of the UK. Additionally, some water companies are required by local health authorities to operate fluoridation schemes for some or all of their water supplies, these are:
Whilst it is possible to test water at home using DIY test strips, these are generally not that useful and are imprecise. Public water supplies generally contain less than 1ppm of fluoride so a test strip that is calibrated in increments of 0, 4, 10, 25, 50, and 100 ppm will be of little help. Reading the colours of these strips and comparing them against a chart can be subjective.
Independent laboratory testing services offer a much more accurate testing option. By sending a small sample of your water to our laboratory we can analyse your water sample accurately for fluoride using sensitive methods such as ion chromatography. For those who are concerned about their fluoride level, we recommend our Fluoride Water Test, or for a more comprehensive analysis of multiple contaminants, our Standard Test.
The weight of scientific research suggests that fluoride in water at the appropriate concentration is safe. The World Health Organization (WHO) and the British Dental Association (BDA) both recommend the use of fluoride in drinking water as a public health measure. The Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in the United States also considers water fluoridation as 'one of the ten great public health achievements of the 20th century'.
What should you do if your water test positive for high levels of fluoride? If households have concerns about potential health issues such as skeletal fluorosis or simply believe that they should have the right to choose whether they consume fluoride, then they may wish to remove fluoride from their drinking water by distillation or by using water filters.
Many of us in the UK have become accustomed to using activated-carbon-based water filters to remove chlorine and improve drinking water taste. However, whilst these filters are effective at removing chlorine and some heavy metals, they are not effective at removing fluoride.
Distillation is an effective way of removing fluoride (and most other things) from tap water, these work by boiling water and collecting the steam, which is then condensed back into liquid. The distillation process is effective but requires significant amounts of energy and is therefore expensive to operate. Many people report that distilled water has an unappealing taste.
There are two filtration methods that are also effective at removing fluoride from water.
Fluoride is found naturally in drinking water in some parts of the UK and is added to drinking water in other parts. Ever since fluoride was first added to UK drinking water in the 1960s, drinking water fluoridation has been controversial and subject to debate.
Most of the scientific evidence suggests that water containing levels of fluoride that are less than the UK limit of 1.5 parts per million is safe to drink and has a positive effect on our health.
Anyone concerned about the level of fluoride in their tap water can test their water with a Fluoride Water Test from our independent water testing laboratory and where required, fluoride can be removed from water using some types of water filter.
]]>Every now and again one of our customers asks a great question. Last week was one of those occasions. I was asked how many bad water tests results we see. If you’ve just paid out for a water test and received a clean bill of health then after the initial feeling of relief, you might well wonder if they all come back negative. Sadly, this isn’t the case. In this blog we’ll look at some of our data for lead which is a particular problem in some of the older housing in the UK.
6.2% of the samples in our study had potentially toxic levels of lead that were above the current UK limit of 10 ppb
Lead is a serious threat to public health, long term exposure is known to be associated with conditions such as hypertension, renal disease, digestive diseases, and cognitive decline. Lead is capable of crossing the placental barrier, harming the foetus, and is known to cause developmental delay and learning difficulties in children.
Lead (in the form of tetraethyl lead) was previously used as a petrol additive. Thankfully, leaded petrol has been banned in the UK since 1999 after the health and environmental impacts became clear. Historically, lead has been added to paint as a pigment and to accelerate drying. The UK has also banned the use of lead in domestic paint since 1992.
As lead is corrosion resistant, malleable, and ductile, it has been used in the manufacture of pipework ever since ancient times. As the toxic nature of lead has become better understood its use in plumbing has been banned in many countries. In the UK the use of lead pipes has been banned since the 1970s.
Despite the use of lead pipes in new houses being prohibited, millions of houses in the UK are still plumbed with dangerous lead pipes that pose a measurable risk to human health. Water companies commonly add orthophosphate to our drinking water as a plumbosolvency agent. The orthophosphate binds to lead pipes and helps prevent the harmful metal from dissolving into the water.
Adding tonnes of phosphate to our drinking water each year may be cheaper than replacing all of the country's lead pipes, but it’s not infallible and errors in dosing have previously been reported. The UK Drinking Water Inspectorate's first quarter report in 2022 found:There were a small number of works where there was evidence that the company had ran out of phosphate, despite the zonal risk assessment for lead requiring phosphate to be dosed at all times as the main control measure.
One common misconception is that drinking water is safe if the amount of lead is less than the amount stipulated in the drinking water standards, the World Health Organization has stated that there is no safe limit for lead. In the UK the drinking water standard for lead has reduced significantly as we learn more about its harmful effects.
The UK water supply regulations introduced in 1989 set the limit for lead to 50 ppb (µg/l), this was reduced to 25 ppb in 2003 and further reduced to our current limit of 10 ppb in 2013. In 2020, the European Parliament adopted the revised drinking water directive that commits the EU members to a limit of 5 ppb by 2036. While the UK has yet to formally commit to a 5 ppb standard it seems likely that we will.
In a recent study conducted at The Water Professor we compared the water test results of over 350 samples taken from around the UK. It’s important to note that our sample may not be representative of a random sample as people often purchase a water test if they suspect they may have a problem such as lead pipes.
6.2% of the samples we tested contained lead at levels higher than the current 10 ppb UK limit. 11.5% of the samples contained lead at concentrations greater than the new 5 ppb standard being adopted by the EU.
Lead found at concentrations of less than 2 ppb may be from natural sources - 76.7% of the samples in our study fell into this category, we therefore estimate that 23.3% of the samples we tested had been taken from properties containing lead pipes.
Item | Percent |
---|---|
< 2 ppb | 76.7% |
2 - 10 ppb | 17.1% |
> 10 ppb | 6.2% |
Unlike other common drinking water contaminants such as arsenic, the primary source of lead contamination is domestic plumbing - we therefore expect elevated lead levels to be evenly distributed across the country. When we look at a heatmap of average lead concentrations across the country we see fairly even distributions with some hotspots in more rural areas, potentially due to older average house ages.
If you wish to verify that you have lead pipes, or if the pipes are not accessible, we would recommend having your water tested. Our advice to anyone with elevated lead concentrations would be to replace the plumbing that’s causing the contamination, grants may be available to help with the cost. Sometimes replacing pipes isn’t an option and filtration may be an effective alternative, even a simple jug filter might help reduce the lead but effectiveness can vary considerably by brand.
Lead pipes remain a measurable threat to UK health. In our 2022 study 6.2% of the samples we analysed contained lead at concentrations above the UK limit of 10 ppb. Lead pipes are found throughout the country and are often found in older properties. The best way to know if you have elevated lead levels in your water is to have it tested using our Lead Water Test. Alternatively, for a more comprehensive analysis of your water covering a wide range of contaminants our Standard Test will provide you with answers.
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We tested three popular filter jugs purchased from Amazon to see how well they removed the toxic heavy metal, lead.
We are not affiliated with nor receive any income from the manufacturer of any of the products tested.
Lead is incredibly toxic, a scientific study of 1,300 children found that intelligence (measured by IQ) decreased as levels of lead found in the blood increased. Incredibly, lead pipes are still used to deliver drinking water in many UK houses unbeknownst to the homeowner. The UK Drinking Water Inspectorate currently sets the legal limit of lead in drinking water at 10 parts per billion - our highly sensitive Lead Water Test is ideal for detecting lead at these concentrations.
Brita is a German company founded in 1966 and is the leading brand for water filters in the UK, we tested the Marella 2.4 L jug which takes their Maxtra+ filter cartridge. Their filters use a three stage process. Firstly, a superfine mesh removes and coarse particles, then ion exchange pearls reduce the amount of scale and metals before, finally, micro carbon pearls made from coconut shells are used to removed substances like chlorine that impair taste and odour.
Aqua Optima is a trading brand of Strix Ltd who are headquartered in the Isle of Man. We tested their 2.8 L Oria jug that uses the Evolve+ filter. The marketing material for the Evolve+ filter claim a ‘5-step system’. The filtration is very similar to the Maxtra+ using activated carbon and ion exchange resin to remove impurities. The Evolve+ has two fine mesh filters and is shaped to ensure a consistent fast flow.
Each of the water filters was prepared in-line with the manufacturer’s instructions and then we used the filters to treat tap water that had been spiked with a small amount of lead. We chose a concentration of 6 parts per billion as it’s a concentration of lead we commonly see when testing UK tap water.
We analysed the filtered water in our lab using an incredibly sensitive instrument called an ICP-MS (inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer) which can very accurately detect tiny amounts of heavy metals.
Uranium - it's used to make atomic weapons and to fuel our nuclear power stations, but did you know that it can be a nasty contaminant of our drinking water? Most of the world's commercial uranium mining operations are found overseas in countries such as Canada, Australia, and Kazakhstan, so it might surprise some to learn that uranium ores can also be found here in the UK and that unhealthy levels can be detected in our groundwater.
Uranium is well known for being a radioactive element, but at the levels encountered in nature its radiation is not a great worry. Far more concerning from the perspective of drinking water safety is that uranium is a highly toxic heavy metal.
Ingested uranium attacks the kidneys - chronic exposure to contaminated drinking water may lead to kidney damage. The health effect of uranium on humans is not well studied, and as such the World Health Organisation has set a provisional guidance value of 30 micrograms per litre (30 ppb) for our drinking water. In the US, the Environmental Protection Agency has also adopted a Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) of 30 micrograms per litre.
Natural uranium in ores such as torbernite and pitchblende can be found in the older rocks of the south-west, Wales, the Peak District, and Scotland. The South Terras mine (located near St Austell, Cornwall) is estimated to have produced over 700 tonnes of Uranium ores and even produced the uranium-rich ores that helped Marie Curie discover radium.
Natural uranium is found in small quantities in many of the older rocks across the UK and as it decays it produces radium which, in turn, decays to radon gas. The uranium concentration in most rocks is very low but under certain geological conditions it can be concentrated to much higher levels.
Tectonic activity millions of years ago generated molten blobs of magma that rose up towards the surface, creating geological features known as 'igneous intrusions'. These intrusions shaped the landscapes of places like Dartmoor, The Cairngorms, Snowdonia and the Lake District.
The super-heated conditions that occur in these geological events generated hot brines that dissolved and concentrate many metal-containing minerals. As these super-heated brines burst up through cracks in the rock they cooled and deposited minerals such as tin, lead, arsenic, and uranium.
When water comes into contact with uranium-rich minerals, tiny amounts of uranium can dissolve which leads to elevated levels of uranium in the groundwater. Many households across the UK draw their water from wells and when these are located near areas with granite rocks there is an increased risk of contamination.
In addition to the uranium from our local ores, it can also be introduced into soil through the addition of fertilizers. Places in the world that are rich in phosphate rocks are often rich in uranium as well. As mineral sources are processed to produce phosphate fertilizers they can often include uranium as a contaminant.
If you are at all concerned about the quality of your drinking water, either by uranium contamination or other toxic metals, then before you consider expensive water treatment the first thing you should consider is getting an accurate water test performed by a laboratory. Please speak to one of our team at hello@thewaterprofessor.com if you are interested in having your water tested for uranium.
Uranium compounds form charged ions in water and can therefore be removed by ion exchange materials found in some water filters. Another great way of removing uranium is using a reverse osmosis system. In a recently conducted study by The Water Professor, we found that a reverse osmosis filter successfully reduced the uranium level of contaminated water in a Welsh property by almost 90%.
]]>Concerned about nitrate in your ? Fortunately, is rare in the UK. However, those with private supplies are at . from is possible in several ways.
Before resorting to expensive treatments or the first step should be to test the .
Nitrate is a naturally occurring compound formed from and oxygen atoms. It has the chemical formula NO3-. High levels of can be dangerous to our health.
Nitrifying bacteria in the soil produce nitrates. It's estimated that lightning also produces 10,000 tons of nitrates each day!
All plants need nitrate to produce foliage, it's one of the main components of modern fertilizers. Nitrate fertilizers have been boosting the yield of our crops since the 1920s.
Nitrate applied to our crops can run off the fields into such as streams and rivers. Nitrates also seep down through the soil and rocks and can contaminate .
The UK requires the to be less than 50 parts per million.
extracted from rivers and bore-holes in agricultural areas often contain nitrates. is a common problem for private supplies ( ). A 2019 study by the Inspectorate found 7.5% of samples contained too much nitrate.
Nitrate is relatively stable and unreactive, and as such its toxicity is low. The action of the bacteria in the mouth and the gut can convert nitrates into toxic nitrites.
can reduce the ability of blood to carry oxygen. Nitrites are dangerous for infants and . At high levels, they can cause blue baby syndrome ( ). Thankfully, cases of are extremely rare in the UK.
Nitrites can react with other substances to form chemicals that may cause cancer. The World Health Organization (WHO) has classified them as potential carcinogens.
Independent laboratory analysis of your is simple and accurate.
Tests provided by The Water Professor can provide assurance to anyone concerned about nitrates. In our Agricultural Test we will analyse your sample for common agricultural contaminants such as nitrate and nitrite, as well as phosphate. For a more comprehensive analysis, our Standard Test will provide information on a number of toxic metals such as lead or arsenic, and water nutrients such as zinc and iron.
You cannot remove nitrate by boiling your . Removing nitrate from can be expensive so we recommend that you test your first. There are three main methods for removing nitrates and improving your :
testing your first. in pose a but are rare in public . Bacteria in the body convert nitrates to nitrites which can pose a . can be expensive so we recommend
]]>The impact of acute lead poisoning is well documented. The fact that lead accumulates in the body from environmental exposure has driven, over the last 50 years, governments around the world to remove lead from paints, fuel, and consumer goods. Since the 1970s, new homes in the UK have been built without lead pipes and strict regulations on plumbing materials now exist. However, existing service pipes to older homes, lead-containing plumbing, including brass fittings and solder joints are still a major source of lead in drinking water.
The European Commission reduced the maximum acceptable concentration of lead in drinking water from 50 µg/L to 10 µg/L [1]. It is natural to view this as the safe limit and believe that so long as our drinking water remains below this new limit, we are okay.
The World Health Organization sets no safe limit on the concentration of lead in drinking water.
Even low lead levels in blood have been linked to a range of negative health effects. In 2000 alone, it was estimated that globally 229,000 premature deaths were attributed to high blood pressure from life-long exposure to lead [2]. Large-scale studies have shown that irreversible developmental effects in children result from exposure to low levels of lead in drinking water. This includes reduced attention spans, lower cognitive function, and disruptive behaviour [3].
In one study, scientists looked at over 1,300 children, following them from birth until 5-10 years of age with the aim of assessing the child’s IQ at different levels of lead in their blood. They found that IQ decreased by nearly 7 points as the concentration increased from 2.4 to 30 µg/dL. They also showed that this is a non-linear process, with the largest impact on child intelligence associated at the lowest concentrations of lead.
Figure 1: Impact on average IQ values of increased blood lead concentrations [4].
Not only do these findings highlight there is no safe limit of lead in drinking water, they show the benefit of reducing already low levels of lead is significant [4].
How water lead levels translate into blood lead levels remains an active area of research and debate. Recent studies have been able to assess the absorption of lead at low levels. These have shown that an increase in lead concentration of just 1 µg/L for levels below 10 µg/L results in a 35% increase in the blood level in children, with the largest effects observed in the youngest age group [5]. Most studies have looked at the impact of lead in drinking water in large groups where it is difficult to assess a clear connection.
One study has shown a clear response in infants where blood lead levels increased by 1µg/dL with drinking water that exceeded 5 µg/L. This is already worrying since it is now believed that blood lead levels as low as 1-2µg/dL result in negative health effects associated with fertility, neurological, cardiovascular, and renal disorders [6]. Evidence is now mounting that further reductions in our exposure to lead will be a significant benefit to the general health and wellbeing of society.
If you are worried about potential lead contamination in your water or simply want peace of mind, we recommend getting your water tested in our laboratory.
Lead has been used for manufacturing pipes since Roman times. The word ‘plumbing‘ is even derived from the Latin plumbum meaning lead! In the UK, lead has been commonly used for domestic plumbing prior to building regulations being changed in 1969.
Lead is extremely toxic, it accumulates within the body and affects every organ, particularly the nervous system and is also known to have serious consequences for the development of children’s brains. The WHO (World Health Organisation) has found that low level lead exposure can lead to reduced IQ and behavioural changes such as reduced attention spans.
Given the toxicity of lead and that its use in pipes has been banned for the last 50 years, it’s surprising that lead pipes are still commonly found in houses. |
There are some simple tests that can confirm if you have a lead supply pipe.
Lead may be present in your drinking water even if you do not find lead pipes, the only way to find out is to test!
The WHO state that there is no safe level of lead in water, in the UK the PCV (Prescribed Concentration or Value) is 10 ppb (parts per billion), water companies must ensure their supply is below this level.
Test strips sold online might sound like a cheap solution to a water testing problem, but sadly most have nowhere near the sensitivity to determine if your water is safe. Test strip products that detect at 20 mg/L (ppm) can only alert you if your water has two thousand times more lead than the prescribed limit.
If you are at all concerned that your drinking water may contain lead then we advise a laboratory test that can detect lead in the range of parts per billion (µg/L), such as those provided by The Water Professor.
]]>If you live in an area with hard water then you will probably be familiar with limescale forming in your kettle, but what is it and where does it come from?
The term hard water is used to describe water that contains calcium and magnesium compounds. Rain water is largely free of all dissolved minerals. How water is collected and delivered to your tap will determine its hardness.
The rock formations in much of the UK are limestone and chalk-based, they have formed millions of years ago from the skeletons of tiny marine organisms rich in calcium and magnesium compounds. As rain percolates through and runs over chalky rocks, it dissolves small amounts of calcium and magnesium, changing its character from soft to hard.
The east and south of the UK are mainly formed of limestone and chalk, so the water, therefore, is hard. The rock formations in Scotland, the north-west, west Wales and the south-west are older igneous rocks and the water collected here is generally soft.
London has a population of more than 9 million and is served by four separate water companies. Not surprisingly, most of London’s water is drawn from the river Thames in the Heathrow area to the west. The second-largest source of London’s water is the river Lea to the north and the remainder is drawn from boreholes.
The surface geology of the south-east of England is predominantly chalk-based and London is surrounded by chalk hills such as the Cotswolds, the Chilterns and the North Downs. The tributaries of both the Lea and Thames run through these chalky rocks and dissolve some of their calcium and magnesium compounds and become ‘hard water’.
The combined concentration of calcium and magnesium in water is known as the total hardness. Total hardness is made up of both permanent and temporary hardness.
Temporary hardness is caused by the presence of calcium and magnesium bicarbonates. It’s removed when water is boiled leading to the formation of limescale. When water runs through sulphate minerals such as gypsum it picks up calcium and magnesium in the form of sulphates which lead to permanent hardness.
Temporary hardness is a nuisance and the cause of scale formation in boilers, washing machines and kettles. Fortunately, both temporary and permanent hardness can be removed by water softeners.
The calcium and magnesium that makes London’s water hard are both essential nutrients for our bodies. The NHS advises that adults need 700mg of calcium a day. For example, London water might typically contain 120mg of calcium in every litre, Londoners drinking their NHS recommended 1.2 litres a day will get around 17% of their recommended calcium intake just from their water alone.
Several studies looking at the correlation between water hardness and cardiovascular disease have suggested that drinking hard water may protect the body from conditions such as heart attacks.
Across the UK we’re often quick to extol the virtues of the water in our area. Scotland, Bristol, Yorkshire and London have all laid claim to having the UK’s best water. In truth, the taste preference for drinking water is highly subjective.
If you live in a soft water area such as Scotland you might complain about the taste of London’s chalky hard water, and conversely, those accustomed to drinking hard water might insist that it has a superior taste. The top-selling bottled water in the UK, Evian, is relatively hard water whilst the second best seller, Highland Spring, is much softer.
Waters that contain chlorides or sulphates may taste slightly bitter - whether these are a good or bad taste is again a matter of personal preference. One thing most people do agree on is that some tastes are highly undesirable, many of these arise for the disinfection agents such as chlorine which is added to our water to keep it safe by killing bacteria.
The vast majority of Londoners have probably never paid a second thought to the mineral content of the water they shower in. We may well have noticed the superior lather formed by our shampoo when visiting soft water parts of the country but is soft water better for our skin?
A 2018 study conducted by researchers at the University of Sheffield investigated the effect of water hardness and detergents (commonly found in soap and skin washing products) on people with healthy skin and people with eczema. The investigation found that when subjects washed with hard water, traces of the detergents were left on the skin which lead to increased water loss from the skin barrier and subsequently irritation.
Most people won’t experience problems washing in London’s tap water but if you are affected by dry skin or eczema then it may be worth discussing with your dermatologist if a water softener might help.
Like much of the country, London is a hard water area. Water is collected from rivers that run through chalky rocks and have therefore picked up calcium and magnesium minerals that make the water hard. When it comes to taste, it’s a matter of preference but hard water is healthy to drink. Many people prefer the feel of soft water when washing and water softeners can help those with dry skin or eczema. Our independent laboratory water tests can help you determine the hardness of your water, as well as a range of other water nutrients and contaminants.
]]>It's three in the morning and you've just woken up with a mouth that's as dry as the Atacama desert. You desperately need to drink a glass of water, but should you trek downstairs to the kitchen or is it okay to top up at the bathroom tap?
It was drummed into me at an early age that the only water that was safe to drink is the cold water from the kitchen tap. Was this an old wives' tale, but is this advice still relevant today?
Drinking the odd glass of water from your bathroom is unlikely to do you any serious harm (you brush your teeth with it don't you?) but the bathroom is almost certainly not the best source of drinking water.
Bathroom tap water can be supplied in a couple of different ways. In some houses, the cold water tap in the bathroom will be supplied by the rising main, i.e. the bathroom tap is connected to the same supply pipes as the kitchen tap. In other houses, the water supply enters the house with the feed for the kitchen tap being very close to the stopcock. From the kitchen, the water makes its way up a supply pipe to a cold water tank in the loft which then feeds the upstairs taps, showers, or toilet cisterns etc. If it's an uncovered tank it might even contain a dead rodent or bird.
Your water supplier ensures that your drinking water supply is safe to drink by adding a disinfectant such as chlorine or chloramine (your water company can tell you which is used in your water). Chlorine is volatile and when chlorinated water is exposed to the open air (such as in the water storage tank) chlorine can escape leaving levels insufficient to kill harmful bacteria.
Many older houses have pipes that are made from lead. Lead doesn't corrode and is easy to bend and was therefore used extensively in UK plumbing until 1970. Unfortunately, lead is an incredibly toxic contaminant and a particular risk to children. When the health dangers were understood, lead pipes were banned. In older houses, the lead pipes between the mains water and the kitchen tap may have been replaced, but there may still be dangerous pipes supplying the bathroom sink. If you are concerned about lead contamination then have your water tested.
Many households improve the quality of their tap water using a water filter. In the UK, activated carbon (AC) filters are commonly used, either in filter jugs or in filter taps. Filtered water is a great alternative to bottled water, but your bathroom water is unlikely to be filtered. If you've paid for safe drinking water then why wouldn't you use it?
In the south and the east of England, many of the rivers that supply our drinking water run through limestone or chalk rocks giving rise to 'hard water'. This is perfectly safe to drink, it often has similar levels of calcium and magnesium to expensive mineral water.
Some people do not like showering or bathing in hard water and it can even aggravate skin conditions such as eczema and psoriasis. One solution to the problem is to install a water softener. Water softeners work by exchanging calcium ions for sodium ions. In areas such as London, water softening can lead to levels of sodium which may be unhealthy to drink. In areas where the water is very hard, the kitchen sink tap is often left unsoftened.
When you stay in a hotel you really have no idea on the quality of the tap water. Sure there may be a 'potable water' sign in the bathroom but is it really safe to drink? Has the water travelled through lead pipes or been stored in a tank? If the overpriced mineral water in the mini-bar is not for you then maybe the best solution is to bring a bottle of water from a trusted source.
Whilst on the subject of which taps are safe to drink from, it's worth mentioning that it's never a good idea to drink from the hot water tap. The hot water is often stored in tanks that can be heated and cooled many times and could lead to the growth of bacteria such as legionella. Steer clear of the hot tap and always choose the cold water tap.
So, is it safe to drink tap water from the bathroom? Probably not, it's unlikely to kill you but the clean water from the cold tap in your kitchen is a far better option. If you're prone to needing a drink in the night then maybe keep a fresh glass of kitchen tap water on your bedside table. For peace of mind about any potential contaminants in your water, we recommend getting it tested.
]]>Ever since water was first distributed by networks, the problem of how to keep drinking water supplies free of contamination from harmful bacteria and other microbes has been a problem.
The solution to the problem of water disinfection has almost always been chlorination. Chlorine is a strong oxidising agent and therefore a highly effective disinfection agent capable of killing waterborne disease-causing pathogens such as bacteria, viruses and protozoa.
In its elemental state chlorine is a gas, think toxic green clouds drifting across the battlefields of the Great War. In addition to chlorination with gas, there are several other molecules containing chlorine that are used to keep our water supplies disinfected. In the UK our water may be treated by the:
When hypochlorite and ammonia are combined, they create molecules called chloramines which are also an effective disinfectant of water.
Chlorine and chloramine are both useful disinfectants but have slightly different properties. Chlorine is more reactive and is, therefore, a much stronger disinfectant.
Whilst chloramine is not as potent, it lasts much longer in distribution pipes and does not have as strong a smell or taste as chlorine. Due to their different properties, chlorine is often used as a primary disinfectant and chloramine as a secondary disinfectant.
Chlorine that is added to water at the treatment plant quickly reacts to form hypochlorous acid which is an extremely strong disinfectant. Hypochlorous acid can be formed using chlorine gas or compounds such as sodium hypochlorite (household bleach) or calcium hypochlorite (swimming pool sanitiser).
Cl2 + H2O -> HOCl + HCl
Hypochlorous acid (HOCl) dissociates in water to form hydrogen ions (H+) and hypochlorite ions (OCl-).
HOCl <-> H+ + OCl-
The sum of all the compounds containing chlorine (HOCl and OCl-) is commonly referred to as ‘Free Chlorine’.
When chlorine reacts with ammonia, either naturally present in the water or added specifically, it forms chloramines. In the first instance, monochloramine (NH2Cl) is formed:
NH3 + HOCl -> H20 + NH2Cl.
If further chlorine is added then a second reaction can occur to form dichloramine (NHCl2),
NH2Cl + HOCl -> H2O + NHCl2,
and at even higher levels of chlorination trichloramine or nitrogen trichloride (NCl3) is formed
NHCl2 + HOCl -> H2O + NCl3.
Of these compounds, monochloramine is the strongest disinfectant and trichloramine (or nitrogen trichloride) has an unpleasant taste and smell. The water treatment companies will, therefore, chlorinate to a level that maximises the production of monochloramine and minimises other chloramines.
In the United Kingdom, the drinking water is supplied by several private companies all of whom are required to deliver clean safe water. Regulations do not stipulate how drinking water should be disinfected. Some of the water supply companies add chloramine to all their water, some add chloramine to parts of their water supply and some do not add chloramine at all.
City water supply networks were pioneered in London where the construction of water supplies began in the 1850s. In 1854, an outbreak of Cholera struck the district of Soho and up stepped physician John Snow.
At that time there was a widely held belief that Cholera was spread through a ‘miasma’ of bad air. John Snow held a contrarian view that cholera was spread through water and plotted the location of cholera cases to deduce the source of the infection as a pump in Broadwick Street. The handle of the pump was promptly removed and cases of Cholera immediately decreased.
Forty-three years later, in 1897, an outbreak of typhoid fever hit the town of Maidstone, Kent. The outbreak affected almost two thousand people causing 132 fatalities. Previously, the only advice offered was to boil the water before drinking but a Cambridge professor named German Sims Woodhead offered a different solution. Woodhead treated the town’s water supply with chlorine in the form of “chloride of lime” what we now know as calcium chloride.
In 1905, another serious outbreak of typhoid in Lincoln was successfully treated with ‘chlorine of lime’ by Alexander Houston. Woodhead’s and Johnson’s actions were initially taken as emergency measures but they paved the way to the large scale chlorination of drinking water that is now in practice throughout the world.
Both chlorine and chloramine can react with naturally occurring organic molecules (such as fulvic and humic acids) to create toxic by-products. Many chlorinated compounds such as PCBs, dioxin and DDT are known to be carcinogenic in humans and are therefore a cause for concern.
In addition to the dangers of ingesting disinfection by-products (DBPs), the volatile nature of substances such as trihalomethanes can enter the bloodstream through the lungs after being inhaled from the steam generated from showers. Chlorine can be removed by a shower filter which contains vitamin C (ascorbic acid).
Chlorine and chloramine may be great at killing harmful bugs in our drinking water supply but they are both bad news for fish. Both chlorine and chloramine will react and damage the cells of the fish gills that are exposed to the water. This will cause stress to the fish and at higher concentrations is lethal. Both chlorine and chloramine are commonly removed in three ways:
Tap water conditioners have the advantage that they are easy to administer. Conditioners contain sulphur compounds such as sodium thiosulphate that bind tightly with the chlorine, rendering it inactive.
When conditioners react with chloramines they can release ammonia which is highly toxic to fish. Carbon filters are generally much cheaper than reverse osmosis but may have a limited capacity to remove chloramine.
Chloramine T
Perhaps slightly confusingly a product called Chloramine-T is sold to promote the health of fish, particularly Koi. Chloramine-T is an organic compound that is safe for fish but effective in the treatment of gill flukes, white spot, costia, and bacterial gill disease.
Both chlorine and chloramine present problems to brewers. Firstly, the chlorine can taint the flavour of the final product and secondly, chlorine and chloramine can kill the yeast that converts the sugars to alcohol. It is advisable to remove both chlorine and chloramine before brewing.
Chlorine can be removed by:
The use of Campden tablets is a popular method of treating brewing water as its very quick and effective. One major drawback of Campden tablets is that the sulphites left in the final product can cause allergic reactions to those that are sensitive.
The addition of chlorine-based sanitisers to drinking water and the consequential reduction of waterborne illnesses is undoubtedly one of the biggest steps forward in public health, but are there any negative health effects?
UK water distribution companies stress that chlorinated water is safe to drink. Drinking water that has not been disinfected is, by contrast, incredibly unsafe.
How can it be that chlorine in the water kills harmful bacteria such as Legionella but doesn’t affect the cells of our body, or the friendly bacteria in our gut?
The arguments presented by the water companies seem to be based on the strength and dilution of the chlorine sanitisers. One might, therefore, conclude that chlorinated water must have some adverse effect on the cells of our body.
A 2020 study conducted across Europe concluded that around 5% of bladder cancer cases in Europe can be attributed to trihalomethanes (THMs), a group of compounds produced as disinfection by-products during the sanitation of drinking water.
Thankfully, chlorine sanitisers can be removed in the home using various water filtration techniques.
Chlorine is volatile and easily removed from drinking water. However, chloramine is more pervasive and difficult to remove. Understanding whether your water company sanitises your drinking water with chlorine or chloramine is important when choosing a water filter.
Free chlorine may be removed in several ways, including:
Chloramine can be removed by specialist activated carbon filter techniques; these are often used as prefiltration steps in some of the more comprehensive reverse osmosis filtration units. Filtered water may have other health benefits as other harmful contaminants may be removed.
Chlorinated tap water has brought about a major step forward in public health.
UK water companies sanitise their water by adding either chlorine or chloramine and carefully monitor the chlorine level. Many water supply companies have recently switched to using chloramine as it lasts longer in supply pipes and imparts less of a chlorine taste.
The interaction of chlorine and organic matter can lead to the production of disinfection by-products (DBPs). Recent studies in Europe have linked certain DBPs with incidents of bladder cancer suggesting that they increase cancer risk.
Chlorine in tap water can be easily removed at the tap using an activated carbon filter. Chloramine is more difficult to remove and can cause problems with brewing, baking, home dialysis, and in aquariums. Some people may have allergic reactions to chloramines and would benefit greatly from chloramine removal.
]]>We are fortunate to enjoy some great quality tap water in the UK, but occasionally it may become contaminated. For the most part, water issues are subtle and difficult to detect but every now and again someone in the UK will open their tap and be greeted by a flow of yellow water. We put great trust in our kitchen taps and it can be quite alarming to see anything that doesn’t resemble a pure mountain spring coming from them. So, what’s causing the water to turn yellow and is it dangerous?
Discoloured water can range from a straw yellow colour through to rusty red or brown, and even to black. Whilst water discolouration can be due to a number of issues, if you are on a mains water supply its highly likely that the issue is caused by rusty sediments containing iron and manganese.
Several of the UK water supply companies describe yellow water as harmless. We know that iron is an essential micronutrient and a lack of it can lead to anaemia, but too much (iron overload or haemochromatosis) is also bad for us. Iron overload can lead to a number of symptoms including: chronic fatigue, weight loss, joint pain, weakness, irregular periods, and erectile dysfunction. Perhaps more concerning is that other (more toxic) metals such as manganese may also be present in rust sediments. We do not recommend drinking or bathing in water that is discoloured with rust.
There are two main sources of rust sediments in our drinking water. Firstly, iron and manganese are naturally present in the rocks through which our rainwater and rivers flows. Small quantities of these metals can dissolve into the drinking water which, over time, can combine with other material to form rust sediments in pipes. Secondly, many of the pipes that supply our water are themselves made from iron. Corrosion of iron and galvanised pipes can lead to build up of colloidal suspensions and deposits of rusty sediments.
Rust sediments that have built up in pipework may suddenly become a problem that leads to discoloured water when they become disturbed, this can be due to a number of reasons including:
To keep your water main in good working order your water company may periodically undertake maintenance work. Valves are opened wide and water is flushed through at high speed. The flushing procedure is designed to stir up and remove any iron and manganese sediments that my have accumulated in the pipes. Maintenance is often conducted overnight when pressure drops cause less inconvenience, so if your tap water discolours overnight this is probably the issue.
Over time the action of the water on iron mains pipes used in the water distribution network can lead to corrosion. Rusty iron and manganese deposits from the corroded pipes can lead to discoloration of your tap water. Unlike pipe maintenance activity, which tends to cause very sudden changes in water colour, water from corroded pipes may have a very slight yellow colour and be difficult to detect.
Occasionally you may experience burst pipes due to physical damage or corrosion, this can lead to sudden changes in water colour and may be associated with a drop in water pressure. Leaks in pipework may occur in the supply pipes to your property (water company’s responsibility) or in the supply pipes that run through your property (home owner's responsibility).
If you regularly experience discoloured water that runs clear after a couple of minutes then the chances are that the problem is due to corroded pipes or fittings in your household plumbing. Similarly, if you only experience discoloured water from certain taps then this is unlikely to be a problem with your water supply.
Very occasionally your fire service may need to access water from a hydrant in the street. Emergency services drawing large amounts of water can lead to pressure changes in the system that can stir up sediments and lead to discolouration in water supplies.
A good starting point would be to speak to your neighbours and find out if they are similarly affected. If none of your neighbours is affected then there’s a good chance that the problem is either in your plumbing or in the pipes that connect your property to the mains.
If your neighbours are similarly affected then a call to your water supply company should be your next action. The water company should be able to identify if there is scheduled maintenance activity that might affect your supply and will be able to further investigate the issue. If you are unsure who supplies your water you can check with Water UK.
If your water has suddenly turned yellow then you will want to run a tap until it turns clear. Preferably use the tap that is closest to where you connect to the water supply. Depending on the severity of the problem you may need to run the tap for up to thirty minutes for it to run clear. If you are on a metered water supply we recommend you contact your supply company to ensure you are not charged. There are some things you will want to avoid until your water supply returns to normal.
It probably goes without saying that you should avoid drinking or bathing in water that is discoloured. As the discolouration is caused by iron and manganese contamination, boiling the water will not make it safe to drink. Refrain from using your water supply and drink bottled water until the issue has been fixed.
If your water has discoloured suddenly then the problem will be likely be contained to your cold-water supply. Whilst your hot water taps may well run clear the hot water system will be topped up from your cold-water supply. Running your hot taps will result in contaminated yellow water being drawn into your hot water supply and is best avoided.
As you want to avoid drinking and bathing in contaminated water you will also want to avoid washing your dishes in it! The rusty water is also likely to stain clothes so avoid using these kitchen appliances until your water supply has returned to normal.
Using water heating appliances such as electric showers whilst you have discoloured water may lead to deposition of sediments in the appliances leading to loss of efficiency or appliance failure, we recommend you avoid using these appliances until your supply problems are fixed.
Water softeners reduce the hardness of your water by removing calcium and magnesium ions. If you have a softener installed then you will want to avoid using your softened water taps which, in turn, will limit discoloured water being drawn into your softener and contaminating the ion exchange resin.
If your water has suddenly change colour then it’s likely that the problem will be short lived and will return to normal quickly. If you’ve had discoloured water for a longer time but it’s only a problem in certain taps then a visit from a plumber might well be a good investment. However, if you’ve had a long term problem with water colour and investigations with your water supply company have not found a solution then you may want to consider filtering your drinking water. Reverse osmosis or activated carbon filters will effectively remove discolouration from water. Before purchasing water filter equipment we recommend that you have your water professionally tested in a laboratory.
Seeing yellow, brown or black water flowing from your drinking taps can be alarming but it’s unlikely to be a long-term problem. Avoid using your water supply until the problem has been properly resolved and contact your water supply company for advice if you are concerned.
Whilst a sudden and dramatic change in your water colour is likely to be due to a specific and temporary cause you may wish to have your water tested in a laboratory to check for iron, manganese or other common contaminants.
]]>In the UK we are fortunate to enjoy some of the highest water quality standards in the world. So, is it worth having your water independently tested? Well, yes, we think so. Whilst water supply companies try hard to ensure good quality drinking water is supplied to your property, treatment and delivery processes can and sometimes do, go wrong. The government has created the drinking water inspectorate (DWI) to provide independent assurance over the controls operated by the commercial water companies. The DWI publish a quarterly report of water contamination on their site.
Whilst the water companies have a duty to deliver clean potable water to your property, it is the responsibility of the property owner to ensure that drinking water does not become contaminated by the domestic plumbing and fittings.
A growing number of health-conscious people in the UK filter their water to remove chemical contaminants and/or biological contaminants. In a quest for safe drinking water, many filter their water with reverse osmosis or routinely pay for replacement activated carbon filters year-in year-out without ever knowing whether filtration is required or beneficial, they may even be removing important minerals like magnesium and calcium that have health benefits. Testing water is simple quick and may save you money.
Acute poisoning is extremely unlikely to result from drinking tap water but, over time, chronic exposure to contaminants of water such as heavy metals can lead to a number of health problems such as kidney failure. If you own or rent a property in the UK then here are a few water contaminants you should know about.
Arsenic is an incredibly toxic water contaminant that is found in low levels in the environment. In countries such as Bangladesh, arsenic is a major pollutant of soil and water. Surface water containing arsenic is often used to irrigate rice crops and can therefore accumulate to harmful levels in food where it may cause arsenic poisoning.
Exposure to very high levels may be fatal with acute toxicity and poisoning symptoms such as vomiting, abdominal pain, and diarrhoea. Longer term exposure through contaminated drinking water is known to increase risks of bladder and skin cancer. Further studies have proposed that arsenic can increase the risk of cancers of the lungs, digestive tract, liver, kidneys, and the lymphatic system.
Are we at risk from arsenic in the UK? A 2013 study commissioned by the UK Health Protection Agency (now part of Public Health England) looked at 512 properties with private water supplies in Cornwall. Five percent of samples tested were found to have arsenic concentrations that exceeded the Prescribed Concentration or Value (PCV). Whilst Cornwall is one of the counties most seriously affected by arsenic contamination, groundwater arsenic hazards also exists in other parts of the UK.
Is it any safer to drink bottled water? Well maybe not, in 2019 the Food Safety Authority of Ireland (FSAI) issued a recall of bottled water after arsenic was detected above the legal limits in several brands of still and carbonated bottled water.
Lead is a common heavy metal contaminant that has been used since ancient times for channelling water and in the construction of domestic water supply pipes. Lead is widely recognised as being extremely toxic and dangerous to human health. Historically lead was added to petrol to act as an engine lubricant. Thankfully, the practice of adding lead to petrol was banned in 2000 after research proved that exposure to traffic fumes can cause elevated blood lead levels. Lead can affect every organ and system in the body, binding tightly to and inactivating many of our enzymes. Young children, infants and pregnant women are thought to be at the greatest risk to lead exposure. Infants who drink formula milk prepared with lead-contaminated water may be at an even higher risk as they drink larger amounts of water relative to their body size.
Despite its highly toxic properties, lead pipes can still be found in many UK homes, particularly those built before 1970. Unfortunately, lead poisoning can still be a problem in modern housing plumbed with copper pipes as DIYers or unqualified plumbers may have used lead solder for jointing pipework.
In the UK the ability of drinking water to dissolve lead (plumbosolvency) is commonly reduced by adjusting the pH of the water and by the addition of orthophosphate. Whilst adding orthophosphate is effective and far cheaper than replacing aging lead pipework it is by no means fool-proof. In 2019 a report issued by the Drinking Water Inspectorate detailed how a water company had failed to correctly dose with phosphate, leading to elevated levels of lead in the drinking water supply to St Helen’s South. During 2018 the DWI found that 78 tests performed in England did not meet the required standard for lead.
Aluminium is a common and abundant metal but the aluminium ion (in the form of the chemical aluminium sulphate) is used by many water companies during the process of purification. It is added to water as a flocculation agent, suspended impurities coagulate into larger particles which can then be filtered or allowed to settle to the bottom of the treatment tank. Aluminium is a known neurotoxin and occupational exposure has been implicated in neurological disease, including Alzheimer’s disease.
Is the aluminium in our drinking water hazardous to our health? A 2019 study conducted by researchers at Edinburgh University suggest it might be. The study looked at 6,990 individuals born in 1921 of whom 1,972 had developed dementia. The investigation concluded that higher levels of aluminium and fluoride were related to dementia risk in a population who consumed relatively low levels of both in their drinking-water.
In July 1998 the UK's worst mass poisoning event occurred when the water supply to the town of Camelford, Cornwall was accidentally contaminated with twenty tonnes of aluminium sulphate. The concentration of aluminium was raised to 3,000 times the admissible level. Exposure to the high level of metal caused many short-term health effects, but many experienced much longer-term effects. An inquest into the death of a 59-year-old woman who lived in Camelford during the time of the poisoning was told that her brain contained levels of aluminium that were “beyond belief”.
Cadmium is another highly toxic heavy metal that is hazardous to human health. Heavy metal pollution from industrial waste or contaminated land can find its way into our drinking water. Cadmium has no known biological function in humans, and along with lead and mercury it is one of six substances banned by the European Union’s restriction on hazardous substances. Cadmium has been classified as a carcinogen to humans.
The 2020 Horizon documentary ‘Toxic Town: The Corby Poisonings’ highlighted the devastating effects on this Northamptonshire town, resulting from the decommissioning of a steelworks site. ‘Toxic ponds’ at the site were known to contain heavy metals including cadmium. Cadmium exposure is known to cause limb defects in developing foetuses and in 2010, Justice Akenhead found that there was a “statistically significant” cluster of birth defects in children conceived in Corby at the time of this decommissioning work.
Cadmium normally occurs in very low concentrations in natural waters, but contamination of drinking water can occur from the presence of cadmium as an impurity in the zinc of galvanised pipes and from solders containing cadmium in fittings. Cadmium contamination from the corrosion of plumbing systems is more likely to occur in areas with soft water which have a lower pH.
In its elemental state chromium is a hard, white metal often used to coat tap and plumbing fittings as it is corrosion resistant and can be polished to a shiny finish. In its chemical form chromium has two main states, the good ‘trivalent’ chromium and the highly toxic ‘hexavalent’ form. The trivalent chromium is thought to play a role in the metabolism of insulin and many questionable claims have been made about its ability to promote weight loss. Hexavalent chromium is a nasty contaminant and is unquestionably highly toxic, being classified as a human carcinogen.
Hexavalent chromium has been used in a number of industrial applications such as in dyes, paints, and leather tanning compounds. Hexavalent chromium from contaminated soil can make its way into our groundwater and consequently, drinking water. In 2011 during an incident at a chemical factory in New South Wales, Australia, led to the release of 200kg of highly toxic hexavalent chromium into the environment. The nearby town was not notified until three days after the accident, sparking a major public controversy.
Perhaps the most infamous case of chromium water pollution was brought to light by legal clerk and consumer advocate Erin Brockovich who brought a case against the Pacific Gas and Electric Company for the alleged contamination of drinking water in the Southern Californian town of Hinkley. The case was settled for $333m and was later popularised in the 2000 film starring Julia Roberts.
Manganese is a heavy metal contaminant that occurs naturally in rocks and soil, and consequently our groundwater. Manganese often occurs with iron and has long been considered a nuisance in our drinking water. At relatively low concentrations manganese can form a coating on the inside of water supply pipes that can later slough off as a black precipitate that can stain fittings and laundry.
Small amounts of manganese are known to be essential to our health but at higher concentrations they can be toxic. Manganese has a wide range of industrial uses and exposure to large amounts of manganese may lead to a movement disorder called manganism which has manifestations similar to Parkinson’s disease.
A recent research paper published in March 2019 proposed that occupational exposure to manganese may lead to the development of Parkinson’s disease. It is thought that manganese exposure may promote the release and aggregation of a protein called alpha-synuclein (αSyn) which in turn produces an inflammatory response in nerve cells. The precise mechanism of how manganese exerts its toxic effects are not yet well understood.
Nitrates have been widely used in agriculture ever since artificial fertilizers were created by German chemists in the early 20th century, but they are a major contributor of groundwater contamination. Excess nitrate fertiliser spread on farmers’ fields can contaminate surface water such as rivers, but it can also leach into the soil. A study by the British Geological Survey found nitrate could sink at a rate of 0.7 to 2 meters a year towards a shallow aquifer from which drinking water was drawn; the phenomena has been termed the ‘nitrate time bomb’. Nitrate contamination of water is mainly a problem in agricultural areas and of particular concern to those with private water supplies. The environment agency has designated 55% of England as being a Nitrate Vulnerable Zone (NVZ).
Exposure to high levels of nitrate in drinking water can cause a potentially fatal condition in babies called methaemoglobinaemia, more commonly known as ‘blue baby syndrome’. Bacteria in the mouth and gut reduce the nitrate to highly reactive nitrite which interferes with oxygen transfer by the blood. In 2006, the World Health Organisation’s International Agency for Research on Cancer (IRAC) concluded that nitrate and nitrite were probably carcinogenic to humans.
If you own or rent a property in the UK and are worried about the quality of your drinking water then our advice is to test it. It may be that your plumbing, fixtures, and drinking water are all of the highest quality, and hopefully you have beautiful, clean water that requires no further action, but you cannot be sure until your water is properly tested. Home testing is simple, so why not visit our online store today and browse our home testing kits, we will test your water in our independent laboratory and bring you peace of mind.
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